It's a question that sparks curiosity and a touch of wonder: who owned Mexico before the Mexicans, as we commonly understand the term today? My own journey into this fascinating topic began years ago, during a trip to the Yucatán Peninsula. Standing before the imposing pyramids of Chichen Itza, I was struck by the sheer scale and sophistication of a civilization that had clearly flourished long before any European boots touched this land. It wasn't just about awe; it was about a profound realization that Mexico's history is a tapestry woven with countless threads, each representing a distinct people, a unique culture, and a deep connection to this very soil. The story isn't a simple one of conquest and replacement, but rather a complex narrative of succession, interaction, and the enduring legacy of peoples who shaped the land for millennia. To truly grasp the essence of "who owned Mexico before the Mexicans," we must delve deep into the ancient past, exploring the rise and fall of empires, the ingenuity of diverse societies, and the foundational contributions they made to the land we now call Mexico.
The Genesis of Mexican Civilization: Early Settlers and the Dawn of Culture
Before we can even begin to discuss ownership, we must acknowledge the very first inhabitants of this vast and fertile territory. Archaeological evidence suggests that human presence in what is now Mexico dates back at least 13,000 years, possibly even earlier. These initial peoples, hunter-gatherers by necessity, were the true pioneers, navigating the diverse landscapes, from the arid north to the lush tropical south. They were the ones who first understood the rhythms of the land, the habits of its wildlife, and the potential of its flora. Their connection was primal, a direct reliance on the environment for survival. This foundational presence, though not marked by grand cities or written records, laid the groundwork for all that would follow. These were not "Mexicans" in the modern sense, but rather the ancestral populations who, over countless generations, would develop distinct cultures and societal structures.
The Archaic Period: Adapting and Innovating
The period between roughly 8,000 and 2,000 BCE, often referred to as the Archaic period, was a time of significant adaptation. As the megafauna of the Pleistocene era declined, these early peoples became more reliant on smaller game and, crucially, began to experiment with plant cultivation. This shift from nomadic hunting and gathering to a more sedentary lifestyle, centered around the domestication of plants like maize, beans, and squash – the Mesoamerican triad – was revolutionary. This wasn't just about finding food; it was about actively shaping their environment and securing a more stable future. Imagine the painstaking process of observing plant growth, selecting desirable seeds, and understanding the cycles of planting and harvesting. This was the dawn of agriculture in the Americas, a monumental leap that would fundamentally alter human societies.
During this era, communities began to form more permanent settlements. While not yet cities, these villages represented a growing sense of place and belonging. They developed more sophisticated tools for farming, such as grinding stones (manos and metates) for processing grains, and weaving techniques for creating textiles. The development of pottery also became increasingly important, providing durable vessels for cooking, storage, and even ceremonial purposes. These innovations weren't confined to one region; similar developments were occurring across Mesoamerica, though with regional variations reflecting local resources and environmental conditions. The concept of "ownership" during this time was likely communal, tied to the immediate land that sustained the village and its people. It was a shared stewardship, a deep understanding of the collective benefit derived from the land's bounty.
The Olmecs: The "Mother Culture" of MesoamericaEmerging around 1500 BCE, the Olmec civilization, centered in the tropical lowlands of Veracruz and Tabasco, is often hailed as the "Mother Culture" of Mesoamerica. While they weren't the first inhabitants, their influence was so profound and widespread that many subsequent civilizations adopted and adapted their innovations. The Olmecs were masters of colossal stone carving, most famously their enigmatic colossal heads, massive basalt sculptures depicting rulers with distinct facial features. These weren't just art; they were powerful symbols of authority and territorial presence. The sheer effort required to quarry, transport, and carve these stones speaks volumes about their organizational capacity and the labor force they could command. This is where we begin to see more defined notions of leadership and, by extension, a form of territorial control exerted by ruling elites.
Olmec society was hierarchical, with evidence of a priestly or ruling class that directed labor and resource allocation. They established ceremonial centers like San Lorenzo and La Venta, which were not merely religious sites but also hubs of political and economic activity. These centers likely served as focal points for surrounding agricultural communities, drawing tribute and labor. The Olmecs also developed a complex religious system, evident in their iconography, which featured jaguar motifs and serpentine figures. Their astronomical knowledge, evident in their calendar systems, and their early forms of writing also laid crucial groundwork for future Mesoamerican civilizations. When we ask "who owned Mexico before the Mexicans," the Olmecs represent a significant answer: they were a dominant cultural and political force that shaped the very foundations of Mesoamerican civilization for a vast region, influencing territories far beyond their direct control.
The Golden Age of Mesoamerica: Teotihuacan, Maya, and Zapotec Ascendancy
Following the decline of the Olmecs, Mesoamerica entered a period of remarkable cultural fluorescence, often referred to as the Classic period (roughly 250-900 CE). During this era, several distinct and powerful civilizations rose to prominence, each with its own unique contributions and territorial claims. These were not monolithic entities, but rather complex societies with intricate political structures, advanced economies, and sophisticated belief systems. Their presence and influence were undeniable, and they effectively "owned" their respective spheres of control through a combination of military power, economic dominance, and cultural prestige.
Teotihuacan: The City of the Gods
Dominating the Central Mexican highlands, Teotihuacan was, arguably, the most influential city in ancient Mesoamerica. Its sheer scale is breathtaking, with the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon still standing as testaments to its grandeur. At its zenith, Teotihuacan may have housed as many as 100,000 to 200,000 people, making it one of the largest cities in the world at the time. The meticulous urban planning, with its grid layout and the majestic Avenue of the Dead, reflects a highly organized and centralized society. Teotihuacan's influence extended far beyond its city limits. Through trade, diplomacy, and likely military might, they exerted a significant economic and cultural hegemony over much of Mesoamerica. Their obsidian tools, pottery, and distinctive murals were found in archaeological sites from the Maya lowlands to the Pacific coast.
The question of who "owned" Teotihuacan is complex. It was a city-state, and its rulers, whose names are largely lost to history, commanded immense power. They controlled key trade routes, particularly for obsidian, a vital resource for tools and weapons. The city's economic engine was fueled by agriculture and a vast network of tribute from conquered or allied regions. Their religious practices, centered on deities associated with creation, fertility, and the underworld, were influential throughout Mesoamerica. The murals decorating their buildings depict not only religious scenes but also scenes of warfare and conquest, hinting at the mechanisms through which they maintained their dominance. While they didn't establish a vast, contiguous empire in the modern sense, their cultural and economic reach was so profound that their "ownership" of the political and economic landscape of a significant portion of Mesoamerica is undeniable. They dictated styles, influenced religious beliefs, and shaped trade networks, making them a central power that profoundly impacted the region.
The Maya: Masters of the Rainforest and the CosmosIn the dense rainforests of the Yucatán Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, and parts of Honduras and El Salvador, the Maya civilization flourished for centuries. Unlike Teotihuacan's singular urban dominance, Maya civilization was characterized by a network of independent city-states, each with its own ruling dynasty. Cities like Tikal, Palenque, Calakmul, and Copán were centers of immense power, innovation, and artistic achievement. The Maya are renowned for their incredibly sophisticated hieroglyphic writing system, their advanced understanding of mathematics and astronomy, and their intricate calendar systems. Their astronomical observations were not just for intellectual curiosity; they were deeply interwoven with their religious beliefs and political legitimacy. Predicting celestial events allowed rulers to reinforce their divine connection and solidify their authority.
The "ownership" of Maya territory was a dynamic interplay between these city-states. They engaged in complex relationships of alliance, warfare, and trade. While there wasn't a single Maya empire, individual city-states exerted considerable regional influence. They controlled fertile agricultural lands, managed complex water systems, and levied tribute from smaller settlements. The rulers, often referred to as *k'uhul ajaw* (divine lords), claimed divine right and lineage, linking their authority to the cosmos. Their patronage of monumental architecture, including towering pyramids, elaborate temples, and observatories, served to legitimize their rule and project their power. The Maya's contribution to the question of who owned Mexico before the Mexicans is multifaceted: they were the stewards of vast territories, meticulously documenting their histories, their rulers, and their cosmological understanding. Their intellectual and artistic achievements set a benchmark for Mesoamerican civilization, and their influence resonated across the region for centuries.
The Zapotecs: Valley of the Oaxaca and Monte AlbánIn the Oaxaca Valley, the Zapotec civilization established its powerful center at Monte Albán. This magnificent city, strategically located on a flattened mountaintop, became a dominant force in the region from approximately 500 BCE to 900 CE. The Zapotecs were skilled architects, astronomers, and record-keepers. Monte Albán's impressive structures, including temples, palaces, and a famous ball court, reflect a highly organized society. The famous "Danzantes" (Dancers) reliefs, depicting contorted figures, are believed to represent captured enemies, illustrating the Zapotec military prowess and their methods of subjugating rivals. This is a clear indicator of their territorial claims and their assertion of power over surrounding peoples.
The Zapotecs developed their own unique writing system and calendar, and their influence spread through trade and conquest. They established a sophisticated system of governance, with rulers who were both political and religious leaders. Monte Albán served as the nexus of their civilization, controlling trade routes and agricultural production in the Oaxaca Valley. Their interactions with other major Mesoamerican powers, such as Teotihuacan and later the Mixtecs, were complex, involving periods of alliance, conflict, and cultural exchange. The Zapotecs, in essence, "owned" the Oaxaca Valley and surrounding regions through their established political institutions, their military strength, and their sophisticated urban planning. They developed a distinct cultural identity that endured for centuries, leaving an indelible mark on the region.
The Post-Classic Period: Rise of Empires and Shifting Power Dynamics
As the Classic period waned and great Classic cities like Teotihuacan experienced decline, Mesoamerica entered the Post-Classic period (roughly 900-1521 CE). This era was characterized by increased militarism, the rise of powerful empires, and significant migrations of peoples. The concept of territorial ownership became more pronounced, often expressed through large-scale tribute systems and imperial expansion. This period saw the emergence of groups who would become particularly influential in the historical narrative leading up to the Spanish arrival.
The Toltecs: Warriors and Builders of Tollan
Emerging in the Post-Classic period, the Toltecs established their capital at Tollan (Tula) in present-day Hidalgo. They are often depicted in later Aztec accounts as formidable warriors and skilled artisans, influencing a wide area of Mesoamerica. The Toltecs are credited with spreading certain cultural and religious practices, including the veneration of Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent deity. Their military might and expansionist policies allowed them to exert considerable control over neighboring regions. The Atlantes of Tula, colossal warrior statues, are iconic symbols of their power and their martial culture. They likely maintained their dominance through a combination of military conquest and strategic alliances, establishing tribute demands from subjugated peoples. The Toltecs, therefore, represent another significant group that "owned" a substantial portion of central Mexico, shaping its political and cultural landscape.
The Aztecs: The Mexica and the Triple AlliancePerhaps the most famous Mesoamerican civilization, the Aztecs, or more accurately, the Mexica, rose to ultimate prominence in the Post-Classic period. After migrating from their mythical homeland of Aztlan, they eventually settled on an island in Lake Texcoco and, through a remarkable series of military campaigns and shrewd political maneuvering, formed the Aztec Triple Alliance with the city-states of Texcoco and Tlacopan. This alliance rapidly evolved into a powerful empire, with Tenochtitlan, the Mexica capital built on an island in the lake, becoming the undisputed center of power. At its height, the Aztec Empire controlled a vast territory encompassing much of central and southern Mexico.
The Mexica "owned" their empire through a sophisticated system of tribute. Conquered city-states were required to pay regular tribute in the form of goods, labor, and even people for sacrifice. This economic system fueled the grandeur of Tenochtitlan, allowing for the construction of monumental architecture, the development of intricate agricultural systems (like chinampas, or floating gardens), and the support of a large population. The Aztec military was formidable, organized and disciplined, capable of projecting power across vast distances. Their religious system, with its emphasis on human sacrifice to appease the gods and maintain cosmic order, played a crucial role in their ideology of conquest and dominance. They saw themselves as divinely ordained rulers, responsible for upholding the universe through their actions. When considering "who owned Mexico before the Mexicans," the Aztecs stand as the most powerful and extensive political entity in the period immediately preceding the Spanish arrival, their empire a testament to their military prowess and organizational genius.
The Tarascans: A Powerful Rival in West Mexico
While the Aztecs dominated central Mexico, another powerful kingdom, the Tarascan state (also known as the Purépecha), flourished in the Michoacán region. The Tarascans were notable for their military strength, their sophisticated metalworking (especially in copper and gold), and their unique language, which is unrelated to other Mesoamerican languages. Unlike many of their neighbors, the Tarascans successfully resisted Aztec expansion, creating a formidable rival power in western Mexico. Their capital at Tzintzuntzan was a major center, and they controlled a vast territory with a distinct cultural identity. The Tarascans "owned" their lands through a well-organized military and a strong centralized government, managing their resources and maintaining their independence against powerful neighbors.
Beyond Empires: Diverse Peoples and Indigenous Ownership
It is crucial to remember that the narrative of Mexico's past is not solely defined by the grand empires of Teotihuacan, Maya, or the Aztecs. Countless other groups, with their own distinct languages, cultures, and traditions, inhabited and shaped the land. These peoples, often living in smaller, more decentralized communities, also possessed their own forms of ownership, deeply tied to their ancestral lands, their resources, and their unique spiritual beliefs. Their historical narratives, though perhaps less monumental, are no less important to understanding the true depth and breadth of pre-Hispanic Mexico.
The Coastal Peoples: A Rich Tapestry of Cultures
Along the Pacific and Gulf coasts, diverse cultures thrived, benefiting from rich marine resources and fertile river valleys. Peoples like the Totonacs of the Veracruz coast, known for their vibrant art and agricultural prowess, and the Huastecs, with their distinctive artistic style and independent spirit, each maintained their own territories and cultural identities. These groups engaged in trade networks, sharing resources and ideas, but also defended their lands and their autonomy. Their forms of "ownership" were rooted in their connection to specific environments – the sea, the rivers, the fertile coastal plains – and the traditions that governed their use of these resources. They were the inheritors and stewards of their ancestral lands for millennia.
Northern Mexico: Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic PeoplesWhile much of the popular imagination of ancient Mexico focuses on the great southern civilizations, the northern regions were home to a variety of nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples. These groups, often referred to collectively as Aridoamerican peoples, developed distinct survival strategies adapted to more arid environments. They were highly skilled hunters and gatherers, with a profound knowledge of the desert landscape. While they may not have built large cities, their territories were vast, and their connection to the land was intimate and profound. Their forms of ownership were more fluid, tied to migration routes, seasonal hunting grounds, and water sources. They were the custodians of a different, yet equally valuable, part of the Mexican landscape, possessing an deep understanding of its natural cycles and resources.
The Concept of Ownership in Pre-Hispanic Mexico
Understanding "who owned Mexico before the Mexicans" requires a nuanced appreciation of how ownership was conceived in the pre-Hispanic world. It wasn't always about private property in the modern Western sense. Instead, concepts of ownership were often tied to:
Land as a Divine Gift: Many Mesoamerican cultures viewed the land as a sacred entity, a gift from the gods. Ownership was often vested in rulers or priests who acted as stewards, responsible for its proper use and for honoring the deities associated with it. Communal Stewardship: In many smaller communities, land was held and worked communally. The focus was on the collective well-being of the group, with individuals having rights to use and benefit from the land as part of the larger social fabric. Territorial Control through Power: Larger political entities, like the Aztec Empire, asserted ownership through military conquest and the establishment of tribute systems. They controlled vast swathes of territory by demanding resources and allegiance from conquered peoples. Spiritual Connection: For many indigenous groups, ownership was intrinsically linked to a spiritual connection with the land, its features, and its inhabitants. Ancestral lands held deep significance, embodying the history and identity of the people.It's important to recognize that these concepts often overlapped and varied significantly between different cultures and regions. The "Mexicans" we refer to today, particularly the Mexica (Aztecs) who were the dominant power at the time of European arrival, certainly held sway over a vast empire. However, to say they "owned" all of Mexico would be an oversimplification that erases the legacies of the many other peoples who preceded them and coexisted with them, each with their own ancestral claims and deep connections to the land.
Frequently Asked Questions about Who Owned Mexico Before the Mexicans
How did ancient civilizations in Mexico manage their land and resources?
The management of land and resources in ancient Mexico was incredibly diverse and sophisticated, varying greatly depending on the civilization and the specific environment. At a fundamental level, many societies relied on agriculture. The domestication of key crops like maize, beans, and squash formed the backbone of their sustenance. To maximize agricultural output, especially in regions with limited rainfall or challenging terrain, they developed remarkable techniques. For instance, the inhabitants of the arid northern regions developed ingenious water-management systems, including reservoirs and canals. In the central highlands, raised fields, or *chinampas*, were a revolutionary innovation, essentially creating artificial islands in marshy areas that allowed for multiple harvests per year. These were particularly prominent in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. Beyond agriculture, resource management also involved careful stewardship of forests for building materials and fuel, hunting grounds for protein, and rivers and lakes for water and aquatic resources. The Olmecs, for example, controlled fertile river valleys, while the Maya developed intricate water management systems in their rainforest environment. The Zapotecs, based in the Oaxaca Valley, also leveraged its agricultural potential. The extent of territorial control often dictated the scale of resource management. Empires like the Aztecs imposed tribute systems, meaning that conquered regions were obligated to send specific resources – maize, textiles, obsidian, precious metals – to the capital, indicating a centralized control over a wide array of goods derived from diverse lands.
The concept of ownership also played a crucial role in how resources were managed. In many societies, land was not privately owned in the modern sense but was often held communally or by ruling elites who acted as stewards. This meant that resource exploitation was often guided by principles of collective benefit or by the demands of the state and its religious institutions. For example, sacred groves or particular hunting grounds might have been reserved for religious ceremonies or royal use. The management of obsidian, a vital resource for tools and weapons, was often tightly controlled by powerful states like Teotihuacan and the Aztecs, underscoring the strategic importance of resource control in maintaining political power. Archaeological evidence, such as the remains of complex irrigation systems, terraced fields, and sophisticated urban planning, all point to a deep understanding of environmental engineering and a concerted effort to harness the land's potential for the benefit of their societies.
Why is it important to understand the history of indigenous peoples in Mexico before the Spanish conquest?
Understanding the history of indigenous peoples in Mexico before the Spanish conquest is of paramount importance for several interconnected reasons, touching upon historical accuracy, cultural identity, and contemporary relevance. Firstly, it provides a more complete and accurate picture of Mexico's past. The dominant historical narrative, for centuries, often focused heavily on the Spanish conquest and colonization, inadvertently overshadowing the rich and complex civilizations that existed for millennia prior. Recognizing the achievements of peoples like the Olmecs, Maya, Teotihuacanos, Zapotecs, and Aztecs, among many others, allows us to appreciate the depth and sophistication of pre-Hispanic societies, their advancements in art, science, architecture, mathematics, and governance. This understanding challenges the notion of a "discovery" and instead highlights a profound process of cultural collision and transformation.
Secondly, this historical understanding is fundamental to grasping the cultural identity of modern Mexico. Mexican culture is not solely a product of Spanish influence; it is a vibrant syncretism, a fusion of indigenous traditions, languages, and worldviews with those introduced by the Europeans. The indigenous heritage continues to resonate in Mexican art, music, cuisine, language (with numerous indigenous words integrated into Spanish), and social customs. Acknowledging and honoring this indigenous legacy is crucial for a full appreciation of what it means to be Mexican today. It fosters a sense of pride and continuity with an ancient and profound past.
Furthermore, understanding this history is vital for addressing contemporary issues of social justice and the rights of indigenous communities in Mexico. Many indigenous groups today continue to face challenges related to land rights, cultural preservation, political representation, and economic inequality. By understanding their historical resilience, their deep connection to their ancestral lands, and their contributions to Mexican civilization, we can better appreciate the ongoing struggles and aspirations of these communities. It provides a context for understanding their present-day realities and advocating for their rights and the preservation of their rich cultural heritage. In essence, knowing "who owned Mexico before the Mexicans" is not just an academic exercise; it is a crucial step toward a more nuanced, respectful, and complete understanding of Mexico's history, its present, and its future.
What were some key differences between the various indigenous civilizations that inhabited Mexico?
The pre-Hispanic landscape of Mexico was incredibly diverse, a mosaic of distinct cultures, each with its own unique characteristics, societal structures, and achievements. While they shared some common threads, such as reliance on maize agriculture and certain cosmological beliefs, their differences were profound. One of the most striking distinctions lay in their political organization. The Maya, for instance, were organized into a series of independent city-states, often engaged in complex alliances and rivalries, with rulers claiming divine authority. In contrast, Teotihuacan was a singular, massive urban center that exerted immense cultural and economic influence, though its precise political structure remains a subject of debate. The Aztecs, or Mexica, eventually forged a powerful empire through the Triple Alliance, establishing a tributary system that controlled a vast territory. The Tarascans in western Mexico, on the other hand, maintained a fiercely independent and centralized kingdom that successfully resisted Aztec expansion.
Architectural styles and urban planning also varied significantly. Teotihuacan is known for its monumental pyramids and the grand Avenue of the Dead, laid out on a grid. The Maya are famous for their towering temples, elaborate palaces, and intricate stucco work, often integrated into the natural landscape of the rainforest. Monte Albán, the Zapotec capital, was strategically situated on a flattened mountaintop, with impressive ceremonial plazas and the unique "Danzantes" reliefs. Artistic expression also differed. While Olmec art is characterized by its colossal heads and jaguar motifs, Maya art features detailed hieroglyphic inscriptions and sophisticated murals. Aztec art often conveyed religious and military themes, with intricate stonework and vibrant codices.
Linguistic diversity was another key differentiator. Mesoamerica was home to a multitude of language families, some with branches and dialects that further diversified the cultural landscape. The Maya languages, for example, are distinct from the Nahuatl spoken by the Aztecs, and the Tarascan language stands apart from most other Mesoamerican tongues. These linguistic differences often reflected distinct cultural traditions, mythologies, and historical trajectories. Even their methods of record-keeping varied, from the Maya's highly developed hieroglyphic system to the pictorial codices used by the Aztecs and other groups. These differences underscore the richness and complexity of pre-Hispanic Mexico, demonstrating that no single civilization represented "the" indigenous Mexican experience, but rather a vibrant tapestry of diverse peoples and societies.
Did the concept of "ownership" differ significantly between indigenous groups and later European colonizers?
Yes, the concept of "ownership" differed profoundly between indigenous groups in Mexico and the later European colonizers, leading to significant misunderstandings and conflicts. For many indigenous cultures, particularly those organized into smaller, more decentralized communities, the concept of ownership was not based on private property in the European sense. Land was often viewed as a communal resource, a sacred entity entrusted to the community by the gods, or held by rulers who acted as stewards rather than absolute owners. The focus was on communal use, reciprocity, and a deep spiritual connection to the ancestral territories. Rights to land were often tied to use, lineage, and participation within the community's social structure. For example, a farmer had the right to cultivate a plot of land as long as they met their community obligations and honored the spiritual significance of the land.
In contrast, European colonizers, particularly the Spanish, arrived with a concept of ownership deeply rooted in Roman law and feudal traditions. This involved absolute private property rights, the ability to buy, sell, and bequeath land, and the idea that land ownership conferred absolute dominion over it. The Spanish Crown granted vast tracts of land to conquistadors and settlers, often disregarding existing indigenous land use and occupancy. They viewed the land as an undeveloped resource to be exploited for economic gain, often for mining precious metals or establishing large agricultural estates (*haciendas*). This fundamental difference in perspective meant that when Spanish colonizers claimed land, they were asserting a form of exclusive, individualistic ownership that was alien to many indigenous peoples, who saw land as a shared, living entity with spiritual significance. This clash of concepts was a major driver of dispossession, conflict, and the disruption of indigenous societies during the colonial era. The indigenous understanding of stewardship and communal responsibility stood in stark contrast to the European drive for individual accumulation and control.
Conclusion: A Legacy of Millennia
The question "who owned Mexico before the Mexicans" is not a simple one with a single, definitive answer. It is a journey through millennia of human ingenuity, cultural development, and diverse forms of societal organization. Long before the arrival of the Mexica (Aztecs) and certainly before the Spanish conquest, the lands that now constitute Mexico were home to a breathtaking array of peoples. From the earliest hunter-gatherers to the sophisticated architects of Teotihuacan, the astronomers of the Maya civilization, the master builders of the Zapotecs, and the formidable warriors of the Aztec Empire, each group left an indelible mark.
These ancient peoples "owned" their lands and their destinies through a complex interplay of spiritual beliefs, communal stewardship, territorial control, and sophisticated political and economic systems. Their legacies are woven into the very fabric of modern Mexico, evident in its landscapes, its art, its languages, and its enduring cultural traditions. To truly understand Mexico is to acknowledge this deep, ancient history, to appreciate the diverse civilizations that flourished and faded, and to recognize that the "Mexicans" of today are the inheritors of a story that began thousands of years ago, a story of peoples who, in their time, profoundly shaped and truly owned the land.